READING PASSAGE 3:

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27 – 40

which are based on Reading Passage 3 on pages 10 and 11.

Temperament

Although temperament the way an individual normally behaves is a key concept in

psychology, as yet, developmental psychologists have not found a single agreed

framework to define and measure this human trait.

One of the most influential studies of temperament has been the New York Longitudinal

Study (NYLS), initiated during the 1950s by Thomas and Chess. They were the first

researchers to develop a systematic theory, and they used a nine – dimensional

framework for describing children’s temperament across a wide age range, from infancy

to adolescence. These dimensions represented behavioural aspects such as activity

level, adaptability, distractibility (how easily distracted a child is) and attention span.

One of the major difficulties with this framework is that it has not been possible to

confirm that these nine dimensions are independent aspects of temperament. Such in

dependence is important, because if any two factors are highly correlated, this implies

that a single factor could be used instead. In fact, it is likely that there are fewer than

nine independent influences on children’s behaviour. For example, a child who is very

distractible is also likely to have a short attention span.

Thomas and Chess also suggest that as well as separate dimensions, there are distinct

types of temperament. Based on the NYLS sample, they suggest that the basic

temperament types can be identified early in infancy: the ‘easy’ child, the ‘slow to warm

up’ child, and the difficult child. In 1968, they presented findings that indicated that

children with the difficult style were at increased risk of later behavioural problems.

However, the concept of the difficult temperament type has been the subject of much

controversy. It was argued that the concept was primarily a product of the parents’

perceptions of their children, rather than differences in the child’s actual behaviour. This

concern reached its height when Vaughan found that mothers’ future ratings of

temperament could be reliably identified before the child was born. Vaughan et al

(1987) measured aspects of mother’s personalities and attitudes towards child-rearing

during their pregnancies and found them to be related to their subsequent ratings of the

child’s temperament. It was therefore argued that the temperament measure was more

influenced by characteristics of the mother than the child. >> Form đăng kí giải đề thi thật IELTS 4 kĩ năng kèm bài giải bộ đề 100 đề PART 2 IELTS SPEAKING quý đang thi (update hàng tuần) từ IELTS TUTOR

An alternative theory of temperament was proposed by Buss and Plomin (1984). Partly

in response to criticisms of the over-complexity of the Thomas and Chess framework

these researchers developed a simpler system. They were also more strongly

influenced by theories of adult personality than were Thomas and Chess.

Buss and Plomin suggested that both experimental laboratory studies and analyses of

questionnaire data indicated that there were Just three independent temperament

dimensions: emotionality, activity and sociability.

In developing their system, Buss and Plomin sought to identify traits that showed early

emergence and strong genetic influence. Since they considered that these traits are the

basis for adult personality. Despite the differences as varying along a continuum.

In contrast, Kagan (1988) emphasises qualitative distinctions. He and his colleagues

have been studying children who they regard as belonging to distinct categories, as

determined by their response to unfamiliar events and people. On the basis of a

systematic series of observations of their behaviour in the laboratory, they suggest that

15 percent or so of children aged 2-3 years are very uninhibited and socially responsive

when confronting unfamiliar people. These two groups show a high degree (75 percent)

of stability into middle childhood, with the children becoming quiet and cautious, and

talkative and sociable respectively. This means, for example, that for the substantial

majority of children who show extreme shyness in middle childhood, this is not simply a

consequence of recent stresses and upsets, but rather a reflection of enduring qualities

of their behaviour.

Kagan proposes that very specific sites in the brain, which regulate emotional behaviour

and long-term memory, are responsible for differences in behavioural style. He has

shown some physiological differences between these groups of children on measures

such as heart rate, heart rate variability and pupil dilation. These are all features which

indicate the degree of the child’s emotional reactions to experiences.

Dunn and Kendrick (1982) have offered an alternative model for the nature of

temperamental differences. They found that most children showed some behavioural

reaction to the arrival in the family of a new baby, such as disturbed sleep, increased

demands for attention, and more tearfulness, and that differences in the intensity of

these reactions were related to temperamental characteristics of the children, as

measured before the new sibling was born. They also found that temperamental

differences were related to differences in the quality of the interaction between the

mother and the older child.

Dunn and Kendrick emphasised that children’s behaviour is not independent of the

situations in which they find themselves. They suggest that the behavioural style that a

child will show in a particular setting is partly a property of the relationship between the

child and the other person. To the extent that this relationship is stable, so then will the

temperamental differences be stable. Using this explanation, it can be seen that the

continuing action of genetic effects on behaviour is not the only mechanism that can

produce stable individual differences in behaviour. It is important that theories of

temperament consider the child’s behaviour in a social context and not in isolation

 Questions 30 – 34

Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A – G below. Write the correct letter, A – G , in boxes 30 – 34 on your answer sheet

30 Buss and Plomin tried to find evidence for

31 Kagan rejected the idea that certain traits were mainly a result of

32 Kagan suggested that the root of behavioural traits lay in

33 Kagan measured children’s emotional reactions by assessing>> IELTS TUTOR có hướng dẫn kĩ PHÂN TÍCH ĐỀ THI THẬT TASK 2 (dạng advantages & disadvantages) NGÀY 04/8/2020 IELTS WRITING GENERAL MÁY TÍNH (kèm bài được sửa hs đi thi)

34 Dunn and Kendrick reported an effect on temperament of

A parental response to children.

B particular neurological locations.

C a laboratory setting

D certain physical functions.

E unpleasant experiences.

F communication problems.

G inherited aspects of temperament.

Questions 35 – 39

Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 3? In boxes 35 – 39 on your answer sheet, write YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the water NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

35 Some of Thomas and Chess’s temperamental dimensions overlap with each other

36 The concept of the ‘difficult temperament has been accepted without question.

37 Vaughan found that mothers assessments of their children’s temperaments were predictable.

38 Buss and Plomin relied on data which had been collected at different periods

39 Kagan’s studies showed that the majority of children reacted confidently to new

people.

Question 40

Choose the correct letter, A , B , C or D Write the correct letter in box 40 on your answer sheet. What is the best title for Reading Passage 3?

A The role of temperament in behaviour problems

B The effect of temperament on family relationships

C A comparison of different theories of temperament

D A new development in the study of temperament